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Islamophobia manifests in many different anti-Muslim activities. Khaled Beydoun, a scholar of Islamophobia, identifies three types of Islamophobia: structural, individual, and dialectic.
Structural Islamophobia is reflected in institutionalized anti-Muslim legislation and further perpetuated through dialectical Islamophobia via policing, bias in media representation and in the legal system, and the use of anti-Muslim rhetoric and statements by political candidates and elected or appointed officials.
On a community level, the emergence of anti-Muslim hate groups, anti-Muslim rallies, organized and anti-mosque activity, including opposition to mosque construction or expansion, vandalism, and opposition to refugee resettlement, demonstrate Islamophobia.
At the private individual level, Islamophobia takes the form of harassment and violence. The 2018 FBI Hate Crime Statistics show an increase in violent “crimes against persons,” even as the vast majority of incidents go unreported. Overall, race and ethnic origin and religious bias accounted for over 78% of all single-bias incidents in 2018. As a religious minority, an ethnically diverse group (half of whom are immigrants), and with a third of the community living in poverty, American Muslims are at a unique demographic intersection that makes them vulnerable to hate crimes. Though FBI statistics show anti-Muslim hate crimes make up 15% of all religiously motivated incidents, tellingly, the Sikh community—often because they are perceived to be Muslim—saw hate crimes triple over 2017-2018.
Several studies have shown that most Americans do not personally know a Muslim, which allows the media and public figures to distort public opinion of Islam and Muslims.
This toolkit is a collection of resources and proven best practices to empower communities and individuals to effectively counter and dismantle Islamophobia in its various forms. As a living document, the toolkit may be updated from time to time with new resources.
Cover photo: The Ban is Immoral by ep_jhu via Flickr Creative Commons (CC BY-NC 2.0)
This document is a comprehensive resource for individuals and organizations alike. Laypeople such as concerned citizens, parents, neighbors, and members of religious congregations will find tools here that empower them to challenge Islamophobia in their homes, neighborhoods, and communities. Educators; political, civic, religious or business community leaders; civic organizations; and any entity looking for guidance to fight bigotry in their ranks, organization, or wider communities can follow actionable items in this guidebook to help them dismantle Islamophobia.
This toolkit is a resource for both short-term and long-term use. In times of crisis, this guide will serve as a reactive rapid response toolkit for immediate actions to address and stymie Islamophobia. At the same time, the information contained herein provides several proactive long-term opportunities to address systemic challenges through education and coalition-oriented ideas.
If you’d prefer to download, print, and share a PDF of this toolkit, you can do that here.
This toolkit is a joint effort published by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, America Indivisible, Western States Center, and Shoulder to Shoulder. We would like to acknowledge our generous supporters whose contributions made this report possible, including DBEK Fund of the Common Counsel Foundation and Open Society Foundation.
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Structural Islamophobia presumes that Islam is inherently violent, suggests that Muslims are incompatible with broader society, and embeds fear and suspicion of Muslims in national institutions. State actors including public officials and law enforcement agencies use the legal framework to enact policies that impact Muslim communities at the national, state, and local levels. As a social institution, the media plays its role in recreating and perpetuating stereotypes and prejudice, portraying Islam and Muslims as “others.”
In the U.S., legislation such as the Patriot Act, the Countering Violent Extremism Program, and, more recently, the Executive Order 13769 that bans Muslims’ entry to the U.S. from several Muslim-majority countries, are all examples of state-sanctioned targeting of Muslims as a group. They cast Muslims as dangerous outsiders whose actions should be surveilled and their movements curtailed.
In fact, the U.S. has a long history of the legalized othering of Muslims. Research suggests that anti-Shariah laws and other legislation that targets Muslims often goes hand in hand with similar efforts to manufacture bigotry and create fear of minorities such as anti-immigration and voter-ID legislation. Such measures suppress participation from racial and economic minorities and also limit freedoms for all Americans.
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Issue: In 2013, some Washington state legislators proposed a pair of anti-Shariah bills (HB1392/SB 6118). The Washington state chapter of the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR-WA) sought to pass a symbolic counter-resolution to reaffirm Washington’s and America’s commitment to religious freedom. The resolution was titled “Faith in Our State.”
Case study excerpted from “Strength Through Diversity: Four Cases of Local and State Level Coalition Success” by Alejandro Beutel and Jelena Jankovic for ISPU, January 2015.
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Research reveals that perceived Muslim perpetrators of violence are subject to more severe legal charges and up to three times the prison sentence as perpetrators not perceived to be Muslim.
Muslims are monitored under surveillance programs without suspicion or accusation of crime. Perceived Muslim perpetrators are also much more likely to be targeted for entrapment, such as undercover law enforcement operations providing them with weapons or fake explosives.
Even in the pre-9/11 era, American media demonstrated a strong anti-Muslim bent. Research consistently reveals that Muslims are among the most negatively portrayed minority groups in America.
Studies show that in media portrayals of Muslim women, negative stereotypes abound.
Perpetrators perceived as Muslim recieve more than seven times the media coverage compared to non-Muslim perpetrators for a similar crime.
News reports have documented elected officials openly exhibiting Islamophobic views.
There is growing evidence of widespread use of anti-Muslim rhetoric in 2017-2018 election races — a practice popular with politicians, but not voters, and ultimately a losing strategy.
Some research suggests a correlation between anti-Muslim rhetoric in the 2016 U.S. election cycle and an uptick in violent crime. Other organizations find recent violence to be the result of decades-long Islamophobic and xenophobic sentiments expressed by anti-Muslim groups and the media over time, as well as officials in the Trump administration of late.
In 2015, then-candidate Donald Trump called for a ban on the entry of Muslims in the U.S. As part of the recent trend of structural Islamophobia reflected in Trump’s immigration policy, the number of refugees admitted to the U.S., particularly Muslims, has fallen to the lowest levels since the current refugee program was implemented in 1980.
Islamophobic and xenophobic rhetoric is divisive and politicizes refugees, asylum seekers, and migrants. There is evidence of elected officials advocating for the restriction of admittance of Syrian refugees to the U.S. following ideologically motivated attacks elsewhere in the world, showing bias towards an entire faith group due to the actions of a few. Research suggests that previously neutral communities are provoked to oppose refugee resettlement on the basis of partisanship.
Issue: “Stop, Question and Frisk,” a crime control tactic of the NYPD used to temporarily detain, question, and search pedestrians if an officer has reasonable suspicion that the pedestrian in question has “committed, is committing, or is about to commit a felony or a Penal Law misdemeanor.” Research found that Black and Latino people were disproportionately and overwhelmingly targeted and were substantially more likely than white people to be frisked and to have physical force used against them. In addition to concerns over civil rights and civil liberties, data suggests the program is ineffective in the short-term and in the long-term, possibly counterproductive to controlling crime.
In 2011, a series of investigative reports revealed secret widespread NYPD surveillance of Muslims. Rather than conducting targeted, evidence-led investigations of specific criminal activity, the research found “police subjected entire neighborhoods to surveillance and scrutiny, often because of the ethnicity of the residents, not because of any accusations of crimes. Hundreds of mosques and Muslim student groups were investigated and dozens were infiltrated.”
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Private Islamophobia is the fear, suspicion, and violent targeting of Muslims by private actors — individuals or institutions acting independently of the state. Islamophobia scholar Khaled Beydoun argues that policies, rhetoric, and media representations of Muslims enable and embolden private Islamophobia to unprecedented levels.
Though relatively new, anti-Muslim hate groups have gained traction in recent years. Research has exposed a well-funded and organized Islamophobia network spurring and fueling anti-Muslim activity in various spheres. Organizations such as ACT for America and Understanding the Threat hold anti-Muslim rallies and talks across the U.S.
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Issue: John Guandolo, an anti-Muslim ex-FBI agent is a self-appointed counter-terrorism expert. He offers Islamophobic training courses to law enforcement and civilians across the U.S. under his organization Understanding The Threat (UTT). Harboring aggressive far-right views, Guandolo advocates for American Muslims to be deprived of their First Amendment rights and alleges that they are anti-American and hold ties to “terrorist organizations” overseas. In April of 2018, Guandolo scheduled a speaking tour of five midwestern cities. Each event was held at a hotel.
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Efforts to construct new mosques or expand existing Islamic centers have been met with hostility for many years. Opposition to the so-called Ground Zero mosque has been widely documented. In its shadow, several smaller mosques have also suffered a similar fate.
Masked as environmental or traffic concerns, resistance to mosques often carries a distinct “us vs. them” undertone nonetheless. At times, the city meetings held to address zoning and permit issues are targeted by Islamophobes.
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Issue: In 2014, the Memphis Islamic Center purchased a large parcel of land in Cordova, an area known for its density of churches deep in the Bible Belt. Pastor Steve Stone of Heartsong Church realized that his congregation would be the closest neighbors to the proposed mosque. He was confronted with balancing misgivings about having an Islamic center nearby with leading his congregation through this situation as a person of faith.
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There have been well- documented and widespread instances of mosque vandalism across the U.S. In recent years, anti-mosque activity has increased. Instances of arson, hateful graffiti, and break-ins are common forms of vandalism.
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Issue: In September 2015, the Islamic Center of Louisville, Kentucky, was vandalized with threatening graffiti in apparent response to antisemitic attacks in France.
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In the years since the events of 9/11, assaults against Muslims have soared. In the past, some incidents of anti-Muslim harassment have turned deadly. In addition to individual occurrences, Muslim worshippers are also intimidated outside their mosques.
There is a deep psychological impact of living under the threat of violence stemming from Islamophobia, even as many American Muslim communities emerge from setbacks stronger than before. In particular, the results of the 2016 election have made Muslims and Jews vulnerable to fear and anxiety, with an added burden of suffering on Muslim women. Alarmingly, even American Muslim children face faith-based bullying at schools from educators and peers.
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In order to respond to and dismantle Islamophobia effectively, narratives about Islam and Muslims must be widened and inclusive. It is important to understand that all Muslims are not “newcomers” to the U.S., and that anti-Muslim sentiment goes far beyond the security lens and women’s rights.
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Report Author
Outreach and Partnerships Manager, ISPU
Program Manager, America Indivisible
Program Director, Shoulder to Shoulder
Research Project Manager, ISPU
Executive Director, Shoulder to Shoulder
Momentum Program Director, Western States Center
Executive Director, ISPU
Director of Research, ISPU
Director of Communications, ISPU
This toolkit is a joint effort published by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, America Indivisible, Western States Center, and Shoulder to Shoulder.
Introduction Sources
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American Civil Liberties Union. Nationwide Anti-Mosque Activity. Accessed August 2020.
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Mogahed, Dalia, and Youssef Chouhoud. American Muslim Poll 2017: Muslims at the Crossroads. Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2017.
Mogahed, Dalia, and Azka Mahmood. American Muslim Poll 2019: Predicting and Preventing Islamophobia. Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2019.
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Part 1 Sources
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Iftikhar, Arsalan. “Report: Muslims Most Negatively Portrayed Minority in US Media.” Bridge Initiative, September 18, 2019.
Terman, Rochelle. “The news media offer slanted coverage of Muslim countries’ treatment of women.” Washington Post, May 5, 2017.
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Allam, Hannah and Talal Ansari, “Republican Officials Have Been Bashing Muslims. We Counted.” Buzzfeed, April 10, 2018.
Kudisch, Brianna. “School board member who made anti-Muslim Facebook posts refuses to apologize, resign.” NJ.com, July 25, 2019.
Bever, Lindsey. “A Texas council member advocated for banning Islam in schools. He refuses to resign.” Washington Post, February 19, 2018.
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Mogahed, Dalia. “Congress and candidates, take note: Anti-Muslim sentiments are unpopular.” The Hill, September 19, 2019.
Müller, Karsten and Carlo Schwarz. From Hashtag to Hate Crime: Twitter and Anti-Minority Sentiment. SSRN, July 24, 2020.
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Zurcher, Anthony, “What Trump team has said about Islam.” BBC, February 7, 2017.
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Part 2 Sources
Beydoun, Khaled A. “Rethinking Islamophobia.” Al Jazeera, March 12, 2018.
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Duss, Matthew,, Ken Gude, Ken Sofer and Yasmine Taeb. “Fear, Inc. 2.0.: The Islamophobia Network’s Efforts to Manufacture Hate in America.” Center for American Progress, February 11, 2015.
Fadel, Leila. “Charitable Foundations Are Funneling Millions To Anti-Muslim Groups.” NPR, May 7, 2019.
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Anti-Muslim Marches Try Spreading Fear, Inspire Countless Acts Of Love Instead
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Katz, Matt. “Another Mosque, This One in Bayonne, NJ, Faces Opposition From Neighbors.” WNYC News, January 23, 2017
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Part 3 Sources
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