Introduction

The majority of Americans say they do not know a Muslim. For many of these Americans, what they know about Muslims comes from media representations.

However, according to media content analysis, more than 80 percent of television media coverage of Islam and Muslims in the United States is negative.

Such narrow media representations open the door to distorted public perceptions of American Muslims, especially in the absence of any first-hand knowledge of this diverse community.

The role of the media in informing the public has never been more important, especially when it comes to marginalized communities. At the same time, journalists are constantly asked to cover more and more, with less resources.

We created this guide to help.

Note: ISPU intends this page to be a living document regularly updated with new research, graphs, guides, and additional resources.

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Successful Media Approaches

1.

Expand the voices that inform your reporting.

Muslims come from all walks of life, as well as diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds. They play a variety of roles in their communities. Include Muslim voices in stories about what concerns all Americans. This includes the voices of:

• Black or African American Muslims, who make up 25–33% of all American Muslims (Learn more about Black Muslim experiences→)
• Women
• Both native-born and immigrant American Muslims

2.

Move beyond the security lens.

Cover stories about American Muslims not framed around national security or criminal violence. Shed light on the diverse roles American Muslims play in their communities, and provide a more accurate, nuanced portrait of who American Muslims really are.

3.

Treat Americans that are Muslims as just that—American.

There has never been an America without Islam and Muslims; they were early explorers, enslaved Africans, and immigrants from around the world. Casting Islam and Muslims as foreign, non-American, and “other” is inaccurate. Rather, rightly cast Muslims as a part of the diverse fabric of American society.

4.

Avoid implicating religion as the sole explanation for negative behavior.

Americans that are Muslim are complex human beings, and their motivation is complex. Don’t assume religion is the driver of their behavior.

5.

Be factual and avoid loaded or Orientalist language.

The use of culturally specific language to describe human behaviors that are not unique to Muslims makes such behaviors seem pathological to these communities. For example, domestic violence affects Muslim communities no more than other faith (and non-faith) communities. Reference to such incidents should be to domestic violence, not “honor crimes.”

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Busting Common Myths about American Muslims

Despite empirical evidence to the contrary, many misconceptions and damaging stereotypes about American Muslims often are repeated in mainstream media and go unchallenged. The following are data-driven responses to common misconceptions.

1.

FACT: Muslims are one of the most likely groups in the United States to reject violence.

ISPU’s American Muslim Poll 2018 found that Muslims were the least likely to accept both military and individual violence against civilians.

2.

FACT: A strong Muslim identity is directly correlated with a strong American identity.

Such data challenges the myth that Americanness and Muslimness are mutually exclusive.

3.

FACT: American Muslim leaders and organizations have consistently and repeatedly condemned violence and denounced violent ideologies.

But should they be expected to? Or are such expectations based in bigotry and Islamophobia? ISPU recently examined attitudes surrounding this debate. In ISPU’s 2017 American Muslim Poll, 50% of American Muslims and 44% of the general public responded that American Muslim leaders should condemn ideologically motivated violence publicly.

One point of of view: ISPU Director of Research Dalia Mogahed says, “When [acts of ideologically motivated violence perpetrated by non-Muslims] occur, we don’t suspect other people who share their faith and ethnicity of condoning them. We assume that these things outrage them just as much as they do anyone else. And we have to afford this same assumption of innocence to Muslims.”

4.

FACT: Most Americans agree that Muslims are no more responsible for violence carried out by a Muslim than anyone else.

Most Americans also agree that negative political rhetoric toward Muslims is harmful to the United States.

5.

FACT: Violence by perpetrators perceived to be Muslim receives far more media attention than other types of ideologically motivated violence.

A recent study by ISPU found that perceived Muslims accused of a violent plot received more than seven times the media attention as their non-Muslim counterparts, despite similarities in their alleged crimes. Similarly, Muslim-perceived perpetrators accused of violent acts were referenced in the media more than four times the rate of their non-Muslim counterparts.

6.

FACT: Muslims who bring up religious-based claims in court are not attempting to change the laws of the United States.

Individual Muslims determine the role of religious rules in their lives depending on their personal beliefs. If a legal dispute arises involving one of those rules, individuals will likely find themselves in litigation, raising claims before an American judge. Anti-shariah legislation restricts the rights of American Muslims to apply religious rules to their lives. This type of legislation is also strongly linked to other forms of bigotry and a legislative agenda aimed at excluding various minority communities from the political landscape.

7.

FACT: The concept of taqiyyah refers to a religious permission to conceal one’s faith if revealing it endangers one’s life, not an open license to lie.  

As explained by American Muslim scholars, nothing in Islam gives Muslims general permission to lie. The origin of the notion of taqiyyah refers to the permissibility for Muslims to conceal their faith if identifying as Muslims puts their lives in danger.

8.

FACT: By an overwhelming margin, Muslim women choose how they dress.

ISPU recently asked American Muslim women why they wear an identifying religious symbol like hijab. 99 percent of respondents indicated personal reasons for wearing hijab, such as piety or the desire to be identified as a Muslim.

9.

FACT:  The overwhelming majority of American women who are Muslim say Islam is a source of pride and happiness in their lives.

American women who are Muslim are one of the most educated female religious groups in the United States. They also overwhelmingly view their faith as a source of happiness and a part of their identity for which they feel a great deal of pride. As described in a recent ISPU policy brief, the rights afforded to women by Islam in the seventh century include the right to a consensual marriage, to remain their own legal entities after marriage, to initiate a divorce, to child support, to own property, to pursue education, and to be involved in social and political affairs. Many Muslim women rise to the tops of their professions as doctors, lawyers, and scholars. A recent study suggests U.S. news media’s disproportionate focus on gender discrimination in Muslim societies contributes to stereotypes that Muslims are distinctly sexist and misogynistic.

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A Primer on Sunni + Shia Muslims

As explained by the Islamic Networks Group:

• The majority of both Sunnis and Shias share the core beliefs of Islam and adhere to the Five Pillars.
• The main differences between them today are their sources of knowledge and religious leadership.
• In addition to the Quran and hadiths, the Shias and the many sects that comprise them rely on the rulings of their Imams and resulting variations in beliefs and practices.
• Historically, the difference originated from the question of succession after the death of the Prophet Muhammad and is related to differing views about appropriate leadership for the Muslim community.

SUNNIS

SHIAS

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Key Terms + Definitions

The diversity of Muslim communities results in a diverse array of terminology. Here are some commonly used terms:

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Tips for Improving Depth of Coverage

Relationships of trust between media professionals and individuals in the American Muslim communities produce better, richer reporting. The following tips, adapted from the Religion Communicators Council, help improve depth of coverage.

✅   Do work actively to form connections with local, national, and international Muslims to establish a relationship.

✅   Do attend a local, national, or community event.

✅   Do focus on interesting stories done by Americans who just happen to be Muslims.

✅   Do write on American Muslim stories that are not framed around ideologically motivated violence.

✅   Do find value in American Muslim experiences and contributions other than helping national security or countering violent crime.

✅  Do write more stories about the lives of American Muslim women not involving the hijab, burqa, domestic violence, or FGM.

❌   Don’t assume all hijab-wearing women (or bearded men) are religious Muslims.

❌   Don’t assume all uncovered women (or clean-shaven men) are not religious Muslims.

❌   Don’t wait for an event dealing with Muslims to develop sources. Develop a source list and make it available to colleagues.

❌   Don’t use the word “unveil” in your title.

❌   Don’t assume any person claiming to represent Muslim communities really does.

❌   Don’t use fringe Muslims as representatives for diverse Muslim communities.

❌   Don’t say the “Muslim world.” There is no “Muslim world.”

❌   Don’t assume all Muslims can speak accurately about Islam.

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Avoiding Double Standards

Covering crime and violence in all its forms is a challenge many journalists face. The following recommendations, based on the Asian American Journalists Association reading of ISPU’s Equal Treatment? report, help inform journalists’ reporting on ideologically motivated violence.

1.

Context Is Important

Many experts agree that white supremacists and right-wing extremists pose a more serious threat to Americans than individuals who falsely claim Islam sanctions their crimes. Rather than paint them as “lone wolves,” coverage of these extremists should include the context of this growing national threat. Discuss the wider social norms that have normalized Islamophobia and other forms of bigotry rather than casting the horrors of an attack as coming out of nowhere.

According to ISPU and Georgetown’s Bridge Initiative’s Islamophobia Index, endorsing a set of five anti-Muslim tropes is directly linked to support for violence targeting civilians. Bigotry is not only immoral—it can also be lethal.

2.

Details Matter

Law enforcement rarely discuss the documented role of informants and agent provocateurs in motivating and operationalizing terror plots that would have never manifested without the law enforcement asset. Journalists need to ask law enforcement about their active involvement in these plots, or lack of, and mention it in all coverage.

3.

Define Ideologically Motivated Violence Consistently in All Stories

Every newsroom needs to have a discussion on whether and when to use the terms “terror/terrorism/terrorist.” The word “terrorism” is highly politicized and many governmental agencies have their own various definitions. We recommend moving away from the word “terrorism” and using instead “ideologically motivated violence,” which is a neutral term. The standards should be the same regardless of the suspect’s background or views. Use actual, concrete terms to describe what has happened, not buzzwords that will inflame.

4.

Don’t Assume Race, Religion, or Ethnicity Are Relevant

Newsrooms should discuss when a suspect/offender’s race, ethnicity, religion, or national origin are relevant. Using descriptors of race, ethnicity, religion, or national origin when they’re not relevant or without explaining their relevance can perpetuate harmful stereotypes. Such stereotypes prevent discussions on how mental illness and other systemic problems can lead to violent attacks or plots.

5.

Question Authority

Journalists covering ideologically motivated violence must question prosecutors and investigators over why they are or are not calling something terrorism, why they’ve chosen to charge a suspect with particular crimes, and what evidence they have for their charges.

6.

A Press Release Is a Press Release

ISPU’s report found the Justice Department sent out six times more press releases for offenders perceived as Muslim than offenders who were not, and ideology was highlighted more often in the former than in the latter. Journalists need to read between the lines, ask questions about language used and facts omitted, and verify details.

7.

Examine Why You’re Covering or Not Covering a Particular Story

Journalists should examine what they’re covering, what they’re not covering, and ask newsroom decision-makers why. Some basic rules should apply: Does the reporting give background and context? Does it offer diverse voices? Does it follow up on events or situations to gain greater insights as well as measures of change or impact?

8.

Avoid Using Mental Illness As Speculative Motivation for Violence

Be cautious not to diminish acts of violence by casually and without evidence using the language of mental illness. This is unfair to people who are mentally ill, who are more likely to be the victim of violent crime than perpetrators of one. Blaming acts of violence on mental illness before facts are known is a way to deflect accountability and dismiss the violence as an aberration rather than the product of systemic societal problems.

9.

Center the Impacted Communities

Data from ISPU’s American Muslim Poll: Muslims at the Crossroads shows that American Jews and Muslims disproportionately feel the negative effects of the United States’ political climate, including increased anxiety and instances of religious- and race-based discrimination. These two communities are the most likely of any faith group polled to say they fear for their safety from white supremacist groups as a result of the 2016 elections (27% of Jews and 38% of Muslims). Jewish and Muslim Americans are also the most likely to report experiencing religious discrimination (60% of Muslims and 58% of Jews). Children suffer, too—nearly a quarter of American Jewish families and more than 40% of American Muslim families report bullying of their kids in school because of their faith.

10.

Rather Than a Humanizing Profile of the Shooter, Center Your Stories on the Victims.

The quest for notoriety is a well-known motivator in instances of mass violence. Don’t provide it. Instead, feature the stories of those we lost—their hobbies, families, childhood, and passion for service or missions, if relevant.  While it is important to understand the motivation of the shooter, humanizing childhood profiles are both offensive and risk inspiring copycat attacks. This time and space should instead be devoted to their victims.

Women + Gender Roles

Muslim Women in the Media

• American media has increasingly expanded its coverage of Muslim women, both in the United States and abroad.
• Yet, representations of Muslim women often falsely stereotype them as meek, powerless, oppressed, or, after 9/11, as sympathetic to crime and violence or only relevant in the context of their headscarf.
• Such stereotypes not only contribute to negative perceptions of Muslim women in the U.S. but also fly in the face of actual data showing that American Muslim women overwhelmingly see their faith as an asset in their lives.
• So, too, reporting often falls short of explaining the diversity of Muslim women, both those born in America and others from dozens of countries.

American Muslim Women by the Numbers

ISPU’s data helps paint a more accurate, nuanced portrait of American Muslim women.

• In the United States, Muslim women are more diverse than women of other faiths and are from the only faith group with no majority race.
• American Muslim women are more likely to report higher socio-economic and educational status than their male counterparts.

American Muslim Women: Resilience Despite Challenges

• American Muslim women are also more likely than their male counterparts to say they experience discrimination and fear for their personal safety.
• Despite this, women are no more likely than men to alter their appearance to be less identifiably Muslim and have responded to the challenges they face with resilience and resistance.
• Additionally, American Muslim women value their religion as much as, if not more, than Muslim men, and are as active as men in their faith communities.
• Lastly, by an overwhelming margin, Muslim women choose how they should dress.

Muslim Women in the Media: A Closer Look

What characterizes representations of Muslim women in the media? How does this compare to representations of non-Muslim women? A recent, large-scale study of New York Times and Washington Post coverage of Muslim and non-Muslim women in foreign countries between 1980 and 2014 suggests the following:

MUSLIM WOMEN

NON-MUSLIM WOMEN

• U.S. news media’s tendency to frame coverage of women in Muslim societies around gender discrimination holds even after controlling for the actual conditions of women in those societies.
• Thus, countries with relatively good records of women’s rights are still more likely to be covered in relation to issues of gender inequality.
• The study concludes that slanted media coverage may be to blame for negative public opinion about Muslim women in the United States.

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Research Team + Advisors

Marwa Abdalla

Author

MA candidate in Communication, San Diego State University

Dalia Mogahed

ISPU Director of Research

Katherine Coplen

ISPU Senior Communication Manager

Katie Grimes

ISPU Communication & Creative Media Specialist

Hannah Allam

Advisor

National reporter for BuzzFeed News, covering U.S. Muslim life. She previously spent a decade as a foreign correspondent at McClatchy, serving as Baghdad bureau chief during the Iraq War and Cairo bureau chief during the Arab Spring uprisings. She has also reported extensively on national security and race/demographics

Stephen Franklin

Advisor

Pulitzer Prize finalist, a former foreign correspondent, author and university instructor. He helped write and create “Islam for Journalists and Everyone Else.” He has trained journalists in Africa, the Arab world and South Asia.

Corey Saylor

Advisor

Managing Director of the Security and Rights Collaborative at ReThink Media; expert in political communications, media relations, and anti-Islam prejudice in the United States

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